Manoj Patairiya
ABSTRACT
Man could well have originated science communication with the early
discoveries, the most important being the discovery of fire and dissemination of
its knowledge. In India, sage Atharvan is credited for the discovery of fire
churning technology and its dissemination during ancient period. A whole host
of scientific literature was created in India during ancient, Vedic, post Vedic
and classical periods. Medieval period saw emergence of newer trends in science
communication when commentaries on earlier scientific texts were written and
structures like Jantar Mantar (observatory) were built, but these were
accessible to a few elites in the society. The real shift in science
communication in favour of the common man became evident in modem times when it
was now possible to bring out publications in large numbers. Science journalism[1]
started in India in 1818 with the publication of monthly Digdarshan published
in Hindi, Bengali and English, carrying a few articles on science and
technology[2].
Science communication proliferated in independent India. This paper discusses
the trends now emerging in India given the efforts, the slackness in quality
and moves to improve it, the plurality of mass media, and a sound science and
technology base of the country; arrived at through an in-depth study intended
at furthering the cause of science communication and scientific attitude. The
study indicates that science coverage attributed to mass media is abysmally
poor, i.e. around 3 percent, which is far below the desired level of 10-15
percent. The present work is an attempt to find out the extent of demand and
supply of S&T coverage in various mass media and presenting an emerging
scenario of science and technology journalism in the country.
INTRODUCTION
Science journalism is the key to the real treasure of the scientific knowledge,
by virtue of which scientific knowledge and concepts could be carried to the
common man. Thus the common man is benefited with the new advancements in
science and technology and is able to fight against hunger, drought, diseases,
and social evils, like superstitions, etc., with self-confidence, courage and
faith. Being aware of this fact, science journalism in India has yet to come
out of its present stage of infancy.
Undoubtedly, science and technology journalism has progressively developed in
India, in terms of quality and quantity, but still there are many miles to go
to achieve the desired level. Science journalism, during its almost two century
long journey thence has crossed several milestones. There has been a
considerable progress in science journalism over the years and as a result
several science magazines, feature services, programmes on radio and
television, etc, emerged, despite the fact that they came into existence much
later. The plight of science journalism in India may not be too deplorable at
the moment, however, a good deal still remains to be done in this field.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
During early days, there was no science communication or journalism, as such.
But as we understand it today, the technology, science and communication
existed from the very beginning. There had been a number of turning points
during the cultural evolution of man in Indian subcontinent, from where we can
mark the beginning of science communication, but it is very difficult to pin
point a single incident being origin of science communication in the country.
The earliest origin point of science communication can be marked, when early
man had made primitive stone tools and disseminated them, some time during
1,50,000 years ago or earlier in the Shivalik region of the subcontinent. Then
came the use and control of fire and dissemination of fire kindling technology.
Preparation of cave sketches/ drawings was the next step. Cro-Magnon man lived
in the Indian sub-continent, who prepared cave sketches, did experiments and
prepared records some 40,000 years ago (Exhibition on History of Science and Technology
in India, 1998, NCSTC). These can be considered as the early modes of science
dissemination.
Sage Atharvan did the invention of fire churning technology in India and the
technology was disseminated throughout the known areas of human population just
like a jungle fire. The fire churners were in great demand at that time and
everybody was keen to have the information on fire churning technology. Sage
Atharvan’s pupils, including families, were the resource persons for
information on fire churning technology (Satyaprakash, 1967). The communication
of the technology of producing fire during early days can be correlated to the
beginning of the rudiments of science communication. The evolutionary trends of
science communication could be worked out through the minute observation of the
evolution of man and civilization. As the civilization progressed, new modes of
communication emerged, which were adopted for disseminating scientific
information from time to time.
The early man might have communicated with each other through body language.
Subsequently, oral language, phonetic and written language evolved, which were
followed by well-developed Prakrat language and then various regional languages
found their ways to flourish. Indus valley civilization flourished in Indian
subcontinent, besides its well-developed Indus script. Agricultural
communication started through public relations around 10000 years ago, when man
started exchanging information about various agricultural practices, like
sowing, irrigation and harvesting, etc.
India has a rich tradition of communication, especially when it comes to
masses. Folk arts, like Nautanki, Ramlila, folk songs and folk dances are
immensely effective as the means of mass communication. India has a great
tradition and a treasure of scientific heritage. During Vedic, post Vedic and
classical periods, a whole host of ancient scientific literature was created,
although such information was not available to the public, and was limited to
most privileged class only. The medieval period has been important for the
preparation of a large number of commentaries on earlier and contemporary
scientific works. This can be considered a great milestone on the road to
communication, as the information about most of the ancient and classical works
mainly reaches us only through these commentaries.
The scientific temper has always been in India, in the form of logic, reasoning
and method of acquiring knowledge, throughout the cultural evolution of man.
The science communication in its real term had begun with publication of a
scientific journal, Asiatick Researches, quarterly from the Asiatick Society,
Calcutta in 1788. Thereafter, the science communication in India has evolved in
many facets. Following this, there has been a continuing development in the
formation of scientific institutions and publication of scientific literature.
Subsequently, scientific publications also started appearing in Indian
languages by the end of eighteenth century. The publication of ancient
scientific literature and textbooks at mass scale started in the beginning of
nineteenth century. The scientific and technical terms, however, had been a
great difficulty for a long time for popular science writing.
The beginnings of science journalism in Indian languages could be traced back
to the articles published in the monthly Digdarshan from Srirampur (Hooghly),
West Bengal in April 1888 in Hindi, Bengali and English. These articles dealt
with topics like flying in a balloon, steam boat, etc. Other newspapers also
started giving scientific information. Science communication activities could
not develop sufficiently during nineteenth century; however, a number of
publications were brought out in different Indian languages and on various
scientific subjects. The science communication was mainly limited to
publication of books and scientific journals, except a few popular science
articles on latest developments.
In the beginning of the twentieth century, new trends emerged. Science
congresses, scientific and industrial exhibitions, seminars, industrial and
technological museums, public lectures, popular science magazines, etc. were
few among the newer developments towards science communication. But the pace of
these activities remained low and no significant effort was done to popularise
science among the people and inculcate a scientific temper amongst them. The
same pattern more or less continued till independence.
PRESENT PERSPECTIVE
After Independence, science popularization was being taken up at various levels.
The Scientific Policy Resolution of March 4, 1958 has been a guiding factor for
development of science and technology in the country. It was the first Prime
Minister of India, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, who gave an impetus to scientific
pursuits and development of scientific outlook. The independent India witnessed
a rapid growth in the efforts of science communication and popularization. With
a view to integrate, coordinate, catalyse and support the efforts of science
communication and science popularization in the country, the Government of
India established the National Council for Science and Technology Communication
(NCSTC) in 1982 as an apex body, which puts more concerted efforts in this
direction.
A number of programmes and activities have started in public and private
sectors to spread scientific knowledge and scientific outlook among masses,
especially in vernaculars, but science journalism in its real form could not
evolve and remained an inner page affair for the media, except a few occasions,
such as Apollo Expedition (1969), Total Solar Eclipse (1995), Ganesh Drinking
Milk (1995), and Nuclear Tests (1998), etc. Following are some of the
dimensions of the state of science journalism in India:
1. Science Journalism and Mass Media
We have been using various means and modes for science journalism/
communication, as follows:
That apart, we are popularizing science through our 18
regional languages, to penetrate into local populace effectively. Selection of
target audience has greatest significance. Our science communication efforts
are aimed at various target groups, such as, common man, children, students,
farmers, women, workers or specialists, etc. Various forms for presentation are
being used to making science communication more interesting and enjoyable, such
as science news, report, article, feature, story, play, poem, interview,
discussion, lecture, documentary, docu-drama, scientoon (science +cartoon),
satire, etc.
Today there are popular science magazines in almost every Indian language,
barring a few. Science programmes appear on radio and TV. Online popular
science magazines, science news on Teletext, ready-to-print science page are
some of the new developments in the area of science journalism.
The use of broadcast and digital media has opened new vistas of science
journalism. The revolution in information technology has made possible to get
scientific information from around the globe within seconds, on our fingertips.
More concerted, coordinated and integrated efforts have started to cater to
large and all cross-sections of the society.
2. Trends in Science Writing/ Reporting
Science articles published in the newspapers/ magazines today are not too
different from what they used to be years ago, i.e. with prosaic style,
technical jargon and excess of avoidable statistics. Obviously, complicated and
uninteresting articles lacking in liveliness, lucidity and without a continuous
flow cannot be expected to attract a large readership. Occasionally, the
articles are immersing from the point of view of subject matter but lacking in
presentation. Due to phenomenal technical advances and narrow specialization in
various fields today both authors and editors alike, find themselves at bay
while dealing with a particular scientific/ technical topic. The articles in
Indian languages often are mere translations of the original English ones. It
is necessary to encourage original science writing in Indian languages.
Then, how should a science article be like! ? In the age of technological
advancement today, most people prefer article which are informative,
analytical, critical and having a continuous flow. To write an article on a
particular topic, one needs to read and understand the available literature and
discuss the topic with concerned experts and incorporate their suggestions.
Necessary statistics, diagrams, photographs, etc. also need to be collected. It
is necessary to bear in mind that an integrated and balanced view of the topic/
issue needs to be presented along with a proper analysis in a language easily
intelligible to the common public. An article must necessarily reflect
alertness and the investigative bent of mind of the reporter. Undoubtedly, even
the laymen appreciate such articles and reports. Needless to say, the titles
and sub-titles need to be interesting and eye catching - nobody likes dry and
unattractive titles.
Sharma K (1993) has commented on popular Hindi science magazines - “most of the
popular science magazines are depending upon translations that creates a lot of
distortion in the presentation.” He also rightly commented on science writers-
“they tend to prepare a story or a report only sitting inside the room, without
going outside or interacting with scientists, who are associated with the
story, or covering on-the-spot events.”
Not only in print, but in broadcast media also, the misleading scientific
information, a continuous decay of creativity in presentation, distortion in
translation, inconsistency in organizing the contents, lapses in the use of language,
and many more deviations can be seen frequently.
Singh (1993) contends - “that popular science writing in India is still
shackled by complacency and over dependence on foreign sources, they are
unfortunately used for plagiarism”.
Very often, it has been seen that a writer uses the popular article of another
writer as a source for his writing and subsequently a third writer is using his
article and a chain of substandard articles is formed, without consulting the
primary source. Thus a series of such distorted communications appear in the
media, as if it were original science writing. In case of translations, other
writers generally misinterpret the technical terms, especially in their
subsequent versions.
Usage of technical terms could occasionally give rise to difficulties, and
hence it is advisable to select and explain explicitly various terms used. For
example, in an article published in a Hindi newspaper, “Satellite DNA” was
referred to as “Upagraha DNA”, where it should have read “Vahak DNA”. Usage of
improper technical terms would hence need to be given due attention by the
science journalists. Terminologies on all technical subjects in regional
languages are available today, however, the usage of a particular term would
require the proper judgement and discretion on the part of the author or the
editor.
Science dissemination is not limited to newspapers and magazines alone. We have
a host of publications on scientific topics that include science books at
popular levels, feature services, encyclopaedias, reference books, monographs,
technical reports, special reports, souvenirs, annual reports and more. A
common thread that needs to run through all these different types is the
authenticity and simplicity and at the same time, a presentation that is
acceptable and readable.
Nav Bharat Times, a leading Hindi daily, started a science column in the year
1948. Today, unfortunately, in most of the dailies, weeklies and monthlies, we
do not see much coverage of science and technology. It is desirable and
imperative to introduce science columns in newspapers/ magazines. A few
newspapers, however, cover science/ technology news and also have introduced
regular science columns. But, in a country like ours, where not many people are
exposed to the basic principles of science and technology, this, by itself, is
not sufficient. Rarely, a science editor or a science reporter is associated
with a newspaper or a magazine. It is desirable to have science correspondents
with all newspapers. This would, in due course, help evolve a policy on editing
and reporting of contemporary topics on science and technology in different
modes of presentation in the media.
One of the reasons for the science reporting to have remained underdeveloped in
our country may be due to the fact that except for a few dry and drab articles,
technical information/ news, and hardly any other modes of science writing were
employed. May be this is why common man could not come to terms with science
and technology. If science were presented in the form of stories, poems, etc,
common man not only would be able to read, but, also would understand and
appreciate science. Poetry is a powerful medium for communication, which could
be used for communicating science to children and neo-literates. Explaining
science in the form of poetry is not as difficult as it may seem. Science
dramas and skits are also under utilized. Only rarely one comes across science
drama and skit in print medium.
Upcoming science writers need to give a try to communicating science through
these unconventional modes. Humour and satire are other areas still untreated
in science reporting. In fact, these modes have not been exploited in science
communication at all! Newspapers/ magazines do publish debates on political and
social issues, but rarely a science reporter or an editor has shown interest in
publishing debates on any scientific issue. Today, there exist several
possibilities of publishing debates on a current issues based on interviews
with scientists and articles based on the same. Apparently, the readers show a
keen interest in scientific topics if presented in such an exciting manner. The
use of the various modes in science reporting would not only generate an
interest in science but would also inculcate scientific attitude into them.
4. Reporting on Local Issues of Scientific Importance
Often, local scientific/ technological issues do not find a place in mass media
at state or national levels. It is worth noting that there has been
considerable success in addressing local issues/ problems/ technologies through
local/ regional level science journalism, which could even help in adopting/
transferring traditional technologies/ processes prevalent in one part of the
country to other parts. A few examples are noteworthy. In a workshop on science
writing/ journalism at Rampur, U.P., a group of participants discovered during
the course of preparation of their story as an exercise of on the spot
reporting that untreated effluents from Kashipur and nearby industries were
being discharged in the Kosi river. Animals died as a result of drinking the
polluted water of the river. Even trees and plants did not survive. Moreover,
the ingress of polluted river water in the wells of the nearby 60 villages
rendered the water undrinkable. This group of reporters made a thorough
investigation of this problem during the course of the workshop. Specimens of
polluted water were collected and analysed. When the reports appeared in media,
the authorities were alarmed and forced to take a number of steps at different
levels to solve the problem. This is how such local level science journalists
can help bring to the fore the local issues/ problems and help address/ solve
the same.
Here is yet another example. During the course of a workshop in Himachal
Pradesh, a group of writers/ journalists came across a traditional technique
for storage of water (Khatriyan in the local language). Often, tanks for
storing rainwater are constructed under the houses, sometimes in an open area.
Rainwater collected from the roofs of the houses is collected through pipes in
these tanks. In case it snows in the area, after the snowfall, the water gets
collected when the snow melts. This stored water is used for doing a variety of
jobs for the whole year. This technique was being used in the past in some
other parts of the country as well and it still could be used. Surely, such
traditional technologies existed/ are existing in different parts of the
country. As a matter of fact, indigenous techniques/ technologies were develop/
are developed depending on need arising from time to time, or were modified/
improved upon for better efficiency and utility. The practitioners in science
journalism could report on these aspects as well.
5. Investigative Science Journalism
The scientific writing in our country today is chiefly limited to describing
various aspects of a particular topic, either in a descriptive manner or in
praise of it. A large number of our science writers and scientific journals are
from the pubic sector and hence it is difficult to expect them to be analytical
or self-critical. Further most of the R&D in our country is being carried
out in government laboratories and there is hardly any means for the common
people to know what scientists are doing. To bring public awareness in our
country in the field of research, there is a need for investigative journalism
in this field. Whatever is happening in this field, good or bad, proper or
improper must be brought before the people, only then science journalism in our
country would flourish in its complete form.
Science journalism in India is nearly devoid of any investigative journalism.
This form of journalism is attractive in its own way and retains readers’
interest in the article to read further. Normally, a journalist publishes an
article after a thorough investigation on political, social, or an economic
issue. This aspect, however, is largely absent in the case of scientific
topics. Perhaps, scientific issues are considered as being free of any human weaknesses,
or not important enough to deserve investigative reporting!
The various forms of science journalism become clear only when aspects like
proper or improper uses of science and technology and good or bad impact of the
same on society are brought to the fore. Science reporting then will develop
into a form of an alert guard and adviser, say, the case of introduction of new
technology, genetically modified food, CNG fuel, and so on. This could become
possible only when an enthusiastic science journalist/ reporter takes science
journalism as a profession. Such reporters could visit a scientific laboratory
and interact with scientists in order to know the current scientific research
and developmental work going on and bring it to the people. It is necessary to
realize that investigative journalism does not imply investigation of any
irregularity alone in a laboratory/ organization, but brining to the people
those useful technologies also still not known far and wide.
6. Science Journalism and Scientific Literacy
Scientific literacy is necessary for the economic and healthy well being of the
social fabric and every person, and for the exercise of participatory
democracy. It also implies the ability to respond to the technical issues that
pervade and influence our daily lives. It does not mean detailed knowledge of
scientific principles, phenomena or technologies, however, it rather points out
to the comprehension of what might be called the scientific approach, or the
scientific way of conduct or the method of science. Science journalism keeps
people aware about the latest in the field of research and development and
helps them lead a life with better knowledge and understanding of newer
advancements. The last two decades have been characterized by the rapid
development of new scientific and technological advancements across a wide
range of fields. Access to these advancements is distributed unevenly within
the country. Even people in far-flung areas often lack access to not only
traditional but also modern scientific knowledge. Effective localized science
journalism can help enhance public awareness about science and technology
confronting their day-to-day lives.
7. Creating the Creators
In order to develop trained manpower in the area of science journalism/
writing/ communication, training/ educational programmes are being offered at
various levels in our country: i) Short term courses, which are of 3 to 7 day’s
duration; the participants are science activists and enthusiasts, whether
students of science at higher level or not; ii) Medium term courses, which are
of two to four month’s duration; usually for those who wants to improve their
science communication skills; and iii) Long term courses, which are of 1 to 2
year’s duration; run at different universities/institutions and offer post
graduate degrees or diplomas in science communication. Besides, a
correspondence course in science journalism of one-year duration is also
available.
As part of short-term courses, 3-5 days’ training-cum-orientation workshops of
local/ regional writers, journalists, illustrators are organized and they are
exposed to various techniques of science writing, reporting, and illustrations.
The idea behind this programme is to develop grass root science writers/
journalists who can eventually write on local issues of scientific importance
with the help of locally available resources/ experts for the local/ regional
level mass media. This is our way to enhancing science coverage in local/
regional press. Some 200 such workshops have been organized so far and our
target is to have similar programmes at all the 500 districts. Through the
implementation of this idea, a number of skilled science writers and
journalists are coming to the fore from different regional languages. At some
places, these grass root science writers have formed Regional Science Writers’
Associations as chapters of the Indian Science Writers’ Association (ISWA).
EMERGING PERSPECTIVE
In spite of a number of efforts for developing science journalism in India,
there are certain challenges before us, to be met. Some of them are listed
below:
a) As an average, the science coverage in India is around 3%, which we intend
to enhance up to 15%, as per a resolution of Indian Science Writers’
Association.
b) The number of capable science journalists/ writers and popular science
magazines is alarmingly low and hardly sufficient to cater to the large target
audience.
c) The science has still not succeeded in attracting the media to the extent
that it could appear on the front page or become a lead story, like the
politics, films or sports. Mass media has its commercial compulsions, which
superimpose all the science communication efforts and leave a negative impact
in the minds of the audiences. Instead of including scientific information,
they prefer to generate more revenue by including non-scientific,
meta-scientific or occult information, etc.
d) It is rather disappointing to note that leading science magazines have
ceased their publication, like Science Today, Science Age, Bulletin of
Sciences, Research and Industry, etc. and Indian editions of foreign science
magazines, like Vigyan (Scientific American), World Scientist (La Recherche),
etc. could not survive, however, recently Indian edition of Popular Science has
been started from New Delhi.
e) India has 18 recognized regional languages. Science writing in many
languages is yet another great challenge, as scientific information is
generally available in English. The quality of scientific translation could not
achieve the level of excellence.
f) The science writing is still dry and boring, and interesting styles of
writing, like fiction, poetry, satires, skits, discussions, etc. have not found
adequate space and time in the media. Even most of the science writers could
not contribute sufficiently such an interesting science material. Merely
occasional appearance of something in the name of science fiction cannot serve
the purpose.
g) Misleading scientific information, a continuous decay of creativity in
presentation, distortion in translation, inconsistency in organizing the
contents, lapses in the use of language, and many more deviations can be seen
on media frequently.
h) There has been emerging conflict between scientists and journalists, which
is a great impediment towards the progress of science journalism in India. This
can be resolved by way of organizing scientists-journalists meets on regular
basis.
i) As far as science writing and science journalism are concerned, there is
ample scope for furthering such efforts in developing countries, especially in
South Asian Region. A common science and technology news and features pool can
be formed to facilitate writers/ journalists to get/ exchange information on
scientific research.
j) There is a great shortage of properly trained science writers, journalists,
communicators, illustrators in various parts of the world, though, a number of
training programmes are conducted at various places. Therefore, more training
programmes are needed, which may preferably be conducted to give more
opportunity to developing countries.
k) Popular science writing in India is still shackled by complacency and over
dependence on foreign sources. It is very difficult to get information from a
scientific laboratory. The scientists in some organizations are not allowed to
talk to the media about the research being carried out by them or in their
laboratory. This requires a science media centre, including a centralized
website to facilitate media persons to get research reports well in time.
l) All India Radio has started science news based on the research papers
appearing in Indian research journals. Print media can follow similar practice
as well.
m) Following the industrial revolution in the western countries, the level of
science coverage in mass media was exponentially increased. As such, India is
passing through the same stage, in the present time. As the technology
advances, the need of scientific information would also increase. Accordingly,
the industrial India would soon witness the high time of science journalism,
but the scientific community, media persons and public have to be vigilant
enough to harness this opportunity.
n) Generally, science journalism is misunderstood merely as communication of
data; it must go beyond data. The logical and rational interpretation must come
up to the fore, enabling the target audiences to shape their lives, ideas and
thinking, as well.
o) There is a need of debates in mass media on emerging issues of science and
technology which are relevant to the people and are of their immediate concern
to enable them to take informed decisions to lead their life in a democratic
society.
Though, challenges are many, we could see some rays of hope, as India has been
able to take initiatives in a number of newer programmes in the area of science
communication, such as, Vigyan Jatha, Children’s Science Congress, and
Scientific Explanation of So-called miracles, etc., which were not tried out
elsewhere and can take lead in these innovative areas of science communication
to better serve the mankind.
CONCLUSION
In order to identify and evaluate the present status of science journalism in
India, various parameters were used. On the basis of a survey conducted, some
interesting inferences were drawn. Near about 12.66% respondents were
interested in science and technology coverage. This inference seems to be
exactly in conformity with the desired level (10-15%) of science coverage in
the country. While looking at the demand and supply analysis, the demand seems
to be very less in some cases. This however, is a false situation limited by
the necessary expansion, which may leap many times in near future.
Science certainly does not fare well when we talk of readers’ interest but it
is also true that we need to work in the direction of making science
interesting. A lot more creativity is required in the field of science writing
and journalism; perhaps this is what we lack at the moment. Science fiction has
achieved the status of best sellers in the west, whereas we hardly have
anything significant of this type of science writing. Low interest in sciences
can be traced to another reason that we are not prioritising two important
segments of our readers, the students and the farmers, in the manner that is of
interest to them. There is reasonable interest in the folk media, especially in
the rural areas and this media does not find enough attention vis-à-vis science
journalism.
It is time to recognize the shift in target population’s interest, i.e. towards
television, and science programmes should be created in enough number through
formats, which are most attractive to them. It may not be incorrect to say that
docu-drama would be the most sought after format of science communication
through television. When, India is passing through a crucial turning point of
its development, we must take emerging trends into our stride and redraw our
policies and plans, to be a nation of scientifically thinking and
scientifically informed people. Hence, the efforts directed towards enhancing
science coverage in mass media through effective and creative science
journalism need to be given more priority. This is an issue, which scientists,
media persons and the public have to take seriously and other side of the coin
needs to be focussed now.
REFERENCES
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11. Patairiya Manoj, NCSTC Communications, 1992-2002.
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13. Patairiya Manoj, SciDev.Net, March 20, 2002, London, U.K.
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Ph.D. Thesis, 1998 (Under publication).
This article is based on a presentation given at the first
JourNet international conference on Professional Education for the Media,
Newcastle, Australia, 16-20 February 2004.
Contact
National Council for Science & Technology Communication (NCSTC):
Technology Bhavan, New Mehrauli Road, New Delhi – 110016 (India)
Indian Science Writers' Association (ISWA): 25/3, Sector - I, Pushp Vihar,
Saket, New Delhi - 110017 (India)
E-mail: manojpatairiya@yahoo.com, mkp@nic.in
[1] “Science Journalism” has been dealt in this paper as a sub-set of the broad set of “Science Communication”; hence most of the other activities concerning Science Communication have been deliberately left aside.
[2] Though science and technology are different terms, in the text of this paper, the term “Science” is inclusive of “Technology” to avoid repetition.